Eight Major Features of Book of Mormon Geography

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Eight Major Features of Book of Mormon Geography

Roger Jones, and Thomas Quinn

Figure 1. Map of possible locations of Book of Mormon geographical features.

The prophet/recorders of the Book of Mormon included over six hundred verses referring to the geography of their land—roughly 10 percent of the book’s 6,607 verses. They evidently felt that such information would help readers better understand their message. Regrettably, to date these data have been insufficient to permit positive conclusions respecting where Book of Mormon events actually took place.

This article attempts to identify eight principal Book of Mormon geographic features by comparing the Book of Mormon text to the current topography of Mesoamerica, the area thought by most scholars associated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to be the New World lands of the Book of Mormon.

Readers must regard this effort as speculative. Although the accelerating pace of anthropological research is bringing Book of Mormon scholars closer to answers, there is no consensus or Church of Jesus Christ position respecting Book of Mormon geography—except to say that New World Book of Mormon lands are located somewhere in the western hemisphere.

The writers of this article claim no expertise in any relevant discipline but are students of the Book of Mormon who have traveled extensively throughout Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala over the last thirty-five years. The geographical features addressed in this article (from which the section titles are drawn), are the following:

1. Narrow neck of land—and thus the “land northward” and “land southward” associated with this neck.

2. East and west seas—and thus the general areas of many Nephite cities and military campaigns.

3. Narrow strip of wilderness—and thus the lands of Zarahemla to the north and Nephi to the south.

4. Narrow pass—one or more transportation corridors between the lands northward and southward.

5. River Sidon—and the Nephite capital of Zarahemla on its western bank in the “heart of the land.”

6. Land of Bountiful—and thus the “many great cities” and land where Christ appeared.

7. Land of Desolation—and thus a Jaredite homeland and place of the Mulekites’ first landing.

8. Land of Cumorah—the final battle site of the Nephites and Jaredites—the hill known to the Nephites as Cumorah and to the Jaredites as Ramah.

Because Mormon describes locations and the movement of the armies and people in his day (sometime near AD 380) with reference to the same geographical features described before the great destruction at the time of Christ’s crucifixion (a period between 580 BC and AD 34), the rather large assumption is made that the basic geography of Book of Mormon lands did not significantly change over the thousand years of Nephite history. Mormon may not have known what geographical changes occurred.

1. Where Is the “Narrow (or Small) Neck of Land”?

A phrase used only three times in the Nephite record (see the verses below), the “narrow (or small) neck of land,” marks the separation between a “land northward” from a “land southward.” Positively identifying this geographic feature would be a major step in fixing the locations of other Book of Mormon lands.

The land of Nephi and the land of Zarahemla were nearly surrounded by water, there being a small neck of land between the land northward and the land southward. (Alma 22:32; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that Hagoth, he being an exceedingly curious man, therefore he went forth and built him an exceedingly large ship, on the borders of the land Bountiful, by the land Desolation, and launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward. (Alma 63:5; 56–53 BC; emphasis added)

And they built a great city by the narrow neck of land, by the place where the sea divides the land. (Ether 10:20; 2500–300 BC; emphasis added) [Ether 2:13 explains that “the Lord did bring Jared and his brethren forth even to that great sea which divideth the lands.” Perhaps the words “where the sea divides the land” in Ether 10:20 simply means “the seashore,” as it does in Ether 2:13. If so, the Jaredite seashore city may have been built somewhere on the Gulf of Mexico. See section 7, “Where Was the Land of Desolation?”]

The “land northward” of the narrow neck of land contained at least the following:

• A land Desolation, perhaps stretching from the Mulekites’ first landing place in the north isthmus (Alma 22:30) to Hagoth’s shipyard (Alma 63:5).

• A land and hill of Cumorah (“Ramah” to the Jaredites—Ether 15:11).

• A land Moron (“where the king dwelt”—Ether 7:6, perhaps encompassing Monte Alban in the state of Oaxaca).

• A land Antum (where sat the hill Shim, a temporary depository of Nephite records—Mormon 1:3).

• Other areas, perhaps including Mormon’s birthplace (Mormon 1:6—perhaps in Teotihuacan, ca. AD 310).

The “land southward” contained at least the following:

• The land of first inheritance, where Lehi’s party landed in the New World, perhaps on the Pacific coast near the Mexico-Guatemala border, in roughly 587 BC (Alma 22:28).

• The land of Nephi—where Nephi’s people settled after moving inland from the land of first inheritance (perhaps to the Guatemalan highlands—Mosiah 28:5–6).

• A narrow strip of wilderness (see section 3, “Where Is the Narrow Strip of Wilderness?”).

• The land and city of Zarahemla—the city established by descendants of Mulek, to which Mosiah1 (as distinguished from his grandson Mosiah2) and his Nephite followers migrated from the land of Nephi in roughly 200 BC (see section 5, “Where Were the River Sidon and the City of Zarahemla?”).

• A land between Zarahemla and Bountiful (1 Nephi 3:23)—perhaps Hermounts (Alma 2:37).

• The land of Bountiful—just north of the land of Zarahemla, but south of the narrow neck of land, which presumably contained the “more capital parts of the land” (Helaman 1:27) and which held the “great cities” (Helaman 7:22) and the place where Christ appeared (3 Nephi 11:1).

Many of today’s observers (among those who believe that Book of Mormon events took place in Mesoamerica) consider the “narrow neck” to be the 130-mile-wide Isthmus of Tehuantepec, which lies between the Gulf of Mexico on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the south (see figure 1 above).

Others (such as F. Richard Hauck and Kirk Magleby) suggest that the narrow neck may be the 20–30-mile-wide coastal plain between the Pacific Ocean and the Sierra Madre Mountains just southeast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec or perhaps a sandbar running parallel to the coast, such as Barra San Marcos, which creates large lagoons on the southern Pacific side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

An Isle of the Sea

Just how narrow was the narrow neck? Nephi’s brother Jacob mused that he lived on an “isle of the sea,” which might suggest a very narrow neck indeed:

And now, my beloved brethren [said Jacob], seeing that our merciful God has given us so great knowledge concerning these things, let us remember him, and lay aside our sins, and not hang down our heads, for we are not cast off; nevertheless, we have been driven out of the land of our inheritance [the land of Jerusalem]; but we have been led to a better land, for the Lord has made the sea our path, and we are upon an isle of the sea.

But great are the promises of the Lord unto them who are upon the isles of the sea; wherefore as it [the brass plates of Laban?] says isles, there must needs be more than this, and they are inhabited also by our brethren. (2 Nephi 10:20–21; 559–545 BC; emphasis added)

In their Commentary on the Book of Mormon, Reynolds and Sjodahl note that “Sir Isaac Newton observes that to the Hebrews the continents of Asia and Africa were ‘the earth,’ because they had access to them by land, while the parts of the earth to which they sailed over the sea were ‘the isles of the sea.’¹" If this view is correct, Jacob may have viewed the entire western hemisphere as an “isle.”

However, the author of Alma 22:32 concurred in Jacob’s statement that the land southward was comparable to an Island:²

The land of Nephi and the land of Zarahemla were nearly surrounded by water, there being a small neck of land between the land northward and the land southward. (Alma 22:32; emphasis added. The period given in the chapter heading is 90–77 BC, but if written by Mormon, this verse actually dates to ca. AD 350 or later.)

The foregoing verse suggests that the narrow neck was not a coastal corridor or sand bar because such geographic features would not contribute to forming a land mass “nearly surrounded by water.” And although Jacob’s view of New World geography may have been limited, Mormon’s view may well have been informed by a centuries-old collection of Nephite military maps.

As to the southern end of this “isle of the sea,” Jerry L. Ainsworth suggests that it may have been created by the joining (or near joining) of the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean at the present location of Lake Nicaragua.³ Most commentators ignore the issue of a southern boundary to the Book of Mormon “isle.”

The Line between Bountiful and Desolation

Some observers have argued that the narrow neck could not be the 130-mile-wide Isthmus of Tehuantepec because the neck could be crossed in a day, citing the following verses:

And now, it was only the distance of a day and a half’s journey for a Nephite, on the line Bountiful and the land Desolation, from the east to the west sea; and thus the land of Nephi and the land of Zarahemla were nearly surrounded by water, there being a small neck of land between the land northward and the land southward. (Alma 22:32; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

And there they did fortify against the Lamanites, from the west sea, even unto the east; it being a day’s journey for a Nephite, on the line which they had fortified and stationed their armies to defend their north country. (Helaman 4:7; 38–30 BC; emphasis added)

Neither of these verses appears to describe the width of the narrow neck of land. The Alma verse seems to refer to a border line between Bountiful and the land Desolation, which stretched from the west sea to some point in the east. The verse in Helaman refers to the length of a fortified line, beginning at the west sea and continuing to some eastern point. Neither verse says this line continues to the “east sea.” Conceivably, both lines refer to the same place. A borderline seems to be described in the following verse:

And the land which was appointed was the land of Zarahemla, and the land which was between the land Zarahemla and the land Bountiful, yea, to the line which was between the land Bountiful and the land Desolation. (3 Nephi 3:23; AD 16–17; emphasis added)

Some Book of Mormon analysts have suggested that the isthmus has risen from the ocean since Book of Mormon times (a period from perhaps 2500 BC, the Jaredite landing, to AD 421, when Moroni hid up the abridged record), making the isthmus wider today.

For example, Ainsworth believes that a huge marshy area in the northern Isthmus of Tehuantepec, all but impassable during rainy seasons, was a more permanent fixture in Book of Mormon times—before dams and other water-control facilities were built by the Mexican government. If true, this marsh may have separated the higher ground containing the Tuxtla Mountains and the ruins of Tres Zapotes, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, and La Venta from the southern half of the isthmus, thus reducing the traversable width of the narrow neck of land.⁴

The Journey of Limhi’s Scouts

Some Book of Mormon commentators suggest that the narrow or small neck may have been of considerable width because King Limhi’s forty-three explorers, during their failed search for the land of Zarahemla (see Mosiah 8), passed into a land northward—a land of waters, bones, breastplates of brass and copper, and extensive ruins—perhaps the “land northward” of Omni 1:22 (written sometime in 361–130 BC).

These travelers from the land of Nephi would presumably have noticed if they passed near an ocean, perhaps prompting the conclusion that they, therefore, were not on the road to Zarahemla and causing them to return to the land of Nephi.

These scouts may have intended to travel from Shemlon to Zarahemla by following the river Sidon—probably the Usumacinta (see section 7, “Where Was the Land of Desolation?”). Instead, they may have mistakenly followed the Grijalva River, whose tributaries lie near those of the Usumacinta in the Guatemalan highlands, and journeyed from the narrow strip of wilderness (see section 3, “Where Is the Narrow Strip of Wilderness?”) to an area perhaps near La Venta, an eastern outpost of the Olmec (perhaps Jaredite) civilization, which may have been a site of battle between the armies of Coriantumr and Shiz (hence the bones and weapons—see Ether 15).

Book of Mormon analysts generally suppose that Ether’s twenty-four gold plates were found by Limhi’s men near the hill Ramah (later identified as the hill Cumorah by Mormon—see Mormon 15:11), but Ether suggests another possibility. After he concluded his record on the twenty-four gold plates, Ether was directed by the Lord to “go forth” and hide the plates “in a manner that the people of Limhi did find them” (Ether 15:33).

Acting on this instruction, Ether may have carried them into the land southward, perhaps to a place such as La Venta, an Olmec/Jaredite city much closer to the land of Nephi. He could have placed them in a major bone-strewn ruin likely to be explored by Limhi’s scouts. He may have marked the location of the plates with a Christian or Nephite symbol that may have attracted the scouts’ attention but that would have been meaningless to others:

And they were lost in the wilderness for the space of many days, yet they were diligent, and found not the land of Zarahemla but returned to this land, having traveled in a land among many waters, having discovered a land which was covered with bones of men, and of beasts, and was also covered with ruins of buildings of every kind, having discovered a land which had been peopled with a people who were as numerous as the hosts of Israel. (Mosiah 8:8; 121 BC; emphasis added)

La Venta has ruins, but the proponents of Cerro Vigia or Cerro Bernal as the hill Ramah (and, necessarily, Cumorah) are unable to point to nearby ruins. Therefore, the twenty-four plates were not buried near Cerro Vigia or Bernal. All of this guesswork is, of course, rank conjecture, but it may offer a plausible explanation of how Limhi’s men found Ether’s plates without the necessity of trekking more than four hundred miles.

Figure 2. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec between the Gulf of Mexico (top) and the Pacific

Ocean (bottom). The narrow coastal plain between the Sierra Madre Mountains and

the Pacific Ocean can also be seen.

Although the location of the narrow neck of land is certainly not free of doubt (primarily because of the 130-mile width of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), the fact that other candidates do not make of the land southward a land mass “nearly surrounded by water” is persuasive evidence that the narrow neck of land is likely the isthmus. Reaching this conclusion requires an assumption that this “island” had a southeast end—perhaps a strait appearing to connect the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean, conceivably near Lake Nicaragua.

2. Where Are the Seas Surrounding the Book of Mormon Lands?

The Book of Mormon refers to a “sea east” (three times), “east sea” (three times), “sea west” (twice), and a “west sea” (nine times). The “sea east” and “east sea” verses probably refer to the same sea, and the “sea west” and “west sea” are likewise probably names for the same sea. The Book of Mormon also speaks of a “sea north” and a “sea south” (but never a “north sea” or “south sea”):

And it came to pass that they did multiply and spread, and did go forth from the land southward to the land northward, and did spread insomuch that they began to cover the face of the whole earth, from the sea south to the sea north, from the sea west to the sea east. (Helaman 3:8; 49–39 BC; emphasis added)

The Sea North—the Gulf of Mexico

The only viable candidate for a “sea north” related to Mesoamerica is the Gulf of Mexico. If the Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the narrow neck of land, the Gulf of Mexico is the only sea to the north of the “land southward” where most New World Book of Mormon events occurred (see figure 1).

The East Sea—the Gulf of Honduras

Major controversy exists among Book of Mormon scholars respecting the location of the “east sea” or “sea east.” Is it the Gulf of Mexico north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec described in the foregoing paragraph, as suggested by John L. Sorenson in his books, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon and Mormon’s Codex: An Ancient American Book⁵, or the Gulf of Honduras off the coast of Honduras and Belize as proposed by such analysts as Jerry Ainsworth, Joseph Allen, and Blake Allen?⁶ The answers to these questions are significant because the bear upon the location of many battles and cities–Nephite, Zoramite, and Lamanite.

If the land of Nephi and the narrow strip of wilderness run west to east along the Motagua fault to the Gulf of Honduras as discussed in section 3 below, the Gulf of Honduras, the eastern terminus of the Motagua River, must be the location of the east sea or sea east (see figures 1 and 3).

Perhaps an Olmec (a Jaredite?) standing at Veracruz or Tampico might call the Gulf of Mexico north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec the “sea east,” but the book of Ether, the record of the Jaredites, does not refer to an east sea. So far as the Book of Mormon records, only Nephites used that term. This fact suggests that the east sea was the Gulf of Honduras and not the Gulf of Mexico because the Gulf of Honduras was east of Zarahemla, the Nephite capital “in the center of the land” in the land southward (Helaman 1:27; see section 5, “Where Were the River Sidon and the City of Zarahemla?”).

And the land of Nephi did run in a straight course from the east sea [presumably the Gulf of Honduras] to the west [that is, from the east sea to the west, south of the narrow strip of wilderness].

And it came to pass that when [Captain] Moroni had driven all the Lamanites out of the east wilderness, which was north of the lands of their [the Lamanites’] own possessions [the land of Nephi], he caused that the inhabitants who were in the land of Zarahemla and in the land round about should go forth into the east wilderness, even to the borders by the seashore [presumably the coasts of Belize and Honduras, on the Gulf of Honduras], and possess the land. [This verse must mean that the Lamanites were driven from the “borders by the seashore” near the Gulf of Honduras south to the land of Nephi because driving Lamanites from the Gulf of Mexico to the land of Nephi would have been a distance of over four hundred miles.]

And he also placed armies on the south [of Zarahemla, along the narrow strip of wilderness], in the borders of their [the Nephites’] possessions, and caused them [the Nephites] to erect fortifications that they might secure their armies and their people from the hands of their enemies [the Lamanites who lived south of the narrow strip of wilderness in the land of Nephi].

And thus he [Moroni1] cut off all the strongholds of the Lamanites in the east wilderness [by driving the Lamanites south into the land of Nephi and moving Nephites into this vacated area], yea, and also on the west, fortifying the line between the Nephites and the Lamanites between the land of Zarahemla and the land of Nephi [along the narrow strip of wilderness], from the west sea [the Pacific Ocean], running by the head of the river Sidon [running east along the narrow strip of wilderness]—the Nephites possessing all the land northward, yea, even all the land which was northward of the land Bountiful, according to their pleasure [see the discussion of the land of Bountiful in section 6, “Where Was the Land of Bountiful?”].

Thus Moroni, with his armies, which did increase daily because of the assurance of protection which his works did bring forth unto them, did seek to cut off the strength and the power of the Lamanites from off the lands of their [the Nephites’] possessions, that they should have no power upon the lands of their possession.

And it came to pass that the Nephites began the foundation of a city, and they called the name of the city Moroni; and it was by the east sea; and it was on the south by the line of the possessions of the Lamanites [the Gulf of Honduras side of the narrow strip of wilderness—just north of the land of Nephi]. (Alma 50:8–13; 72–67 BC; emphasis added)

These verses must describe the Gulf of Honduras. “East sea” likely does not refer to the sea north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as Sorenson suggests, because the east sea was “south by the line of the possessions of the Lamanites” (Alma 50:13) and thus near the narrow strip of wilderness and the land of Nephi.

The Anti-Nephi-Lehies in the Land of Jershon

As will be seen in the verses below, the land Jershon, where the people of Ammon (formerly the Anti-Nephi-Lehies) were first located on Nephite lands, was south of the land of Bountiful and near the east sea. Thus, they probably would have been located near the Gulf of Honduras—not the Gulf of Mexico.

These people, who had been taught the gospel by the sons of Mosiah₂, may have selected the title “Anti-Nephi-Lehies” to distinguish themselves from other groups in the area as descendants of Lehi, but not through Nephi, using “anti” to mean “not” or “instead of” rather than “against.” If so, the title may have meant “the Lehies (descendants of Lehi), not of Nephi,” or, put differently, “the not-Nephite Lehies.”

Such usage may have evidenced the group’s determination to avoid use of the names “Laman” or “Lemuel” in its title. They were first called Anti-Nephi-Lehies in 90–77 BC (Alma 23:17). These Lamanites may have been called Anti-Nephi-Lehies for several years before Alma began calling them the “people of Ammon” after they moved to the land of Jershon in 76 BC (Alma 28:1).

And it came to pass that the voice of the [Nephite] people came, saying: Behold, we will give up the land of Jershon, which is on the east by the sea, which joins the land Bountiful, which is on the south of the land Bountiful; and this land Jershon is the land which we will give unto our brethren [the people of Ammon] for an inheritance. (Alma 27:22; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

Now the Zoramites had gathered themselves together in a land which they called Antionum, which was east of the land of Zarahemla, which lay nearly bordering upon the seashore, which was south of the land of Jershon, which also bordered upon the wilderness south [presumably the narrow strip of wilderness], which wilderness was full of the Lamanites. (Alma 31:3; 74 BC; emphasis added)

And the people of Ammon departed out of the land of Jershon, and came over [presumably west] into the land of Melek, and gave place in the land of Jershon for the armies of the Nephites, that they might contend with the armies of the Lamanites and the armies of the Zoramites. [The Zoramites were based in the land of Antionum near the Gulf of Honduras just north of the narrow strip of wilderness; see Alma 31:3 above. Thus, Jershon was located near the Gulf of Honduras—north of the lands of Nephi and Antionum and south of the land Bountiful.] (Alma 35:13; 74 BC; emphasis added)

Now Moroni, leaving a part of his army in the land of Jershon, lest by any means a part of the Lamanites should come into that land and take possession of the city [north of the narrow strip of wilderness on the east sea], took the remaining part of his army and marched [west] over into the land of Manti [just north of the east-west center of the narrow strip of wilderness near the headwaters of the river Sidon]. (Alma 43:25; 74 BC; emphasis added)

The foregoing verses likewise suggest that the east sea must be the Gulf of Honduras. Captain Moroni marched from Jershon on the east sea to the land Manti, at the headwaters of the river Sidon. If Jershon and the east sea were at the north end of the isthmus at the Gulf of Mexico as Sorenson suggests, this would be a very long march indeed—over four hundred miles from the Gulf of Mexico to the headwaters of the river Sidon in the narrow strip of wilderness.

Now, the king [of the Lamanites, the dissident Nephite Ammoron] had departed out of the land of Zarahemla [which he had recently conquered], and had made known unto the queen concerning the death of his brother [Amalikiah, the queen’s husband], and had gathered together a large number of men, and had marched forth against the Nephites on the borders by the west sea [perhaps near Antiparah and an unnamed city by the seashore, where Helaman and the stripling soldiers later fought. The name “seashore city” was bestowed on this location by John E. Clark].⁷

And thus he [Ammoron] was endeavoring to harass the Nephites, and to draw away a part of their forces to that part of the land [near the west sea], while he had commanded those whom he had left to possess the cities which he had taken, that they should also harass the Nephites on the borders by the east sea [the Gulf of Honduras], and should take possession of their lands as much as it was in their power, according to the power of their armies. (Alma 52:12–13; 66–64 BC; emphasis added)

And thus it did come to pass that the people of Nephi began to prosper again in the land, and began to build up their waste places, and began to multiply and spread, even until they did cover the whole face of the land, both on the northward and on the southward, from the sea west to the sea east. [Apparently, many Nephites lived near the east sea and west sea shortly before Christ’s visit.] (Helaman 11:20; 20–7 BC; emphasis added)

The verses above suggest a much larger Book of Mormon geography than envisioned by Sorenson in his Grijalva-based “Chiapas central depression and north Isthmus of Tehuantepec” model of Book of Mormon lands. In the foregoing verses, the Lamanite armies under Ammaron are implementing a strategy to engage the Nephites on both the west sea (led by Captain Moroni, as discussed in the section below) and the east sea (led by Teancum)—battlegrounds on both the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean over three hundred miles apart.

The Sea South—the Pacific Ocean off Guatemala

The Pacific Ocean off the western coast of Guatemala is the only plausible spot for the “sea south” of Mesoamerican lands. It may have been the place of Lehi’s landing and is located south of this article’s proposed land of Zarahemla “in the heart of the land” (see figure 1).

The West Sea—the Pacific Ocean off Mexico

There is no debate here—the west sea must be the Pacific Ocean. But this hypothesis raises some challenging questions.

Question 1: How far south along the west sea did the Nephites settle?

Captain Moroni developed a line of fortified cities running from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Honduras, along the narrow strip of wilderness, for the purpose of keeping the Lamanites and their allies from moving northward into the lands of Zarahemla and Bountiful and ultimately into the “land northward” beyond. Beginning at the west coast and moving east, these cities were “seashore city,” Antiparah, Cumeni, Zeezrom, Manti, Nephihah, and Moroni (on the east coast—the Gulf of Honduras).

And he [Captain Moroni] also placed armies on the south, in the borders of their possessions [near the narrow strip of wilderness], and caused them to erect fortifications that they might secure their armies and their people from the hands of their enemies.

And thus he cut off all the strongholds of the Lamanites in the east wilderness, yea, and also on the west, fortifying the line between the Nephites and the Lamanites, between the land of Zarahemla and the land of Nephi, from the west sea, running by the head of the river Sidon—the Nephites possessing all the land northward, yea, even all the land which was northward of the land Bountiful, according to their pleasure [perhaps including the Yucatan Peninsula—a possibility that will be discussed later]. (Alma 50:10–11; 72–67 BC; emphasis added)

Now, the king [Ammoron] had departed out of the land of Zarahemla, and had made known unto the queen concerning the death of his brother, and had gathered together a large number of men, and had marched forth against the Nephites on the borders by the west sea.

And thus he was endeavoring to harass the Nephites, and to draw away a part of their forces to that part of the land [by the west sea, south], while he had commanded those whom he had left to possess the cities which he had taken, that they should also harass the Nephites on the borders by the east sea, and should take possession of their lands as much as it was in their power, according to the power of their armies. (Alma 52:12–13; 66–64 BC; emphasis added)

And now it came to pass that the armies of the Lamanites, on the west sea, south, while in the absence of Moroni on account of some intrigue amongst the Nephites, which caused dissensions amongst them, had gained some ground over the Nephites, yea, insomuch that they had obtained possession of a number of their cities in that part of the land. . . .

And now it came to pass that Helaman did march at the head of his two thousand stripling soldiers, to the support of the people in the borders of the land on the south by the west sea. (Alma 53:8, 22; 64 BC; emphasis added)

Now when we saw that the Lamanites began to grow uneasy on this wise, we were desirous to bring a stratagem into effect upon them; therefore Antipus ordered that I [Helaman] should march forth with my little sons to a neighboring city, as if we were carrying provisions to a neighboring city.

And we were to march near the city of Antiparah, as if we were going to the city beyond, in the borders by the seashore [“seashore city” on the sea west]. . . .

And it came to pass that we did march forth, as if with our provisions, to go to that city.

And it came to pass that Antipus did march forth with a part of his army, leaving the remainder to maintain the city. But he did not march forth until I had gone forth with my little army, and came near the city Antiparah.

And now, in the city Antiparah were stationed the strongest army of the Lamanites; yea, the most numerous. .

And it came to pass that when they had been informed by their spies, they came forth with their army and marched against us.

And it came to pass that we did flee before them, northward. And thus we did lead away the most powerful army of the Lamanites. (Alma 56:30–36; 66–62 BC; emphasis added)

That “seashore city” located “in the borders by the seashore” may well have been the ruins of Izapa, just north of the Mexico-Guatemala border and north of the “land of first inheritance” where Lehi landed on the Pacific coast (see figure 3). This area is probably the “west sea, south” of Alma 53:8.

Question 2: How far north along the west sea did the Nephites settle?

If Izapa marks the southwest corner of Nephite lands, what identifies the northwest corner? Perhaps “Hagoth’s shipyard” on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The cities of Teancum and Desolation may have been located near this area (see section 7, “Where Was the Land of Desolation?”).

And it came to pass that Hagoth, he being an exceedingly curious man, therefore he went forth and built him an exceedingly large ship, on the borders of the land Bountiful, by the land Desolation, and launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward. [Presumably this and other ships built here would have required lumber from large trees, which may have been more numerous in the land of Bountiful than the land of Desolation.] (Alma 63:5; 56–53 BC; emphasis added)

As will be seen in the verses below, Nephites and the people of Ammon began migrating to the land northward in 56 BC. Some may have settled by the west sea, if only to work in the ports needed to service the passengers and cargo sent north by Hagoth and other shippers:

And it came to pass that in the thirty and seventh year of the reign of the judges, there was a large company of men, even to the amount of five thousand and four hundred men, with their wives and their children, departed out of the land of Zarahemla into the land which was northward. [The land northward of Zarahemla was presumably Mexico north of the isthmus, given the information in the following two verses.]

And it came to pass that Hagoth, he being an exceedingly curious man, therefore he went forth and built him an exceedingly large ship, on the borders of the land Bountiful, by the land Desolation, and launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward. [Evidently, the lands of Bountiful and Desolation converged at the west sea in or near the narrow neck of land.] . . .

And it came to pass in the thirty and ninth year of the reign of the judges, Shiblon died also, and Corianton had gone forth to the land northward in a ship, to carry forth provisions unto the people who had gone forth into that land. (Alma 63:4–5, 10; 56–53 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass in the forty and sixth, yea, there was much contention and many dissensions; in the which there were an exceedingly great many who departed out of the land of Zarahemla, and went forth unto the land northward to inherit the land. . . .

And it came to pass as timber was exceedingly scarce in the land northward, they did send forth much by the way of shipping. . . .

And it came to pass that there were many of the people of Ammon, who were Lamanites by birth, did also go forth into this land. (Helaman 3:3, 10, 12; 49–39 BC; emphasis added)

Some travelers to the land northward apparently found the risk of ocean travel preferable to a journey through the mountains in the state of Oaxaca. Book of Mormon readers should have little doubt, however, that many immigrants to the land northward traveled to the large, well-watered valleys where the great cities were established—Monte Alban in the Oaxaca valley, Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, and Cholula in the Puebla-Tlaxcala valley. Ultimately, descendants of these Nephites made a final journey to the land of Cumorah in AD 380 to 385.

Question 3: Who occupied the land between the Pacific Ocean and the Sierra Madre Range south of the isthmus?

The Lamanites may have inhabited much of the land from the western end of the narrow strip of wilderness all the way north through the Pacific coast corridor west of the adjacent Sierra Madre de Chiapas mountains to the Chiapas-Oaxaca border (see figures 1 and 2), based upon the following verse:

Now, the more idle part of the Lamanites lived in the wilderness, and dwelt in tents; and they were spread through the wilderness on the west, in the land of Nephi [Guatemala]; yea, and also on the west of the land of Zarahemla, in the borders by the seashore, [along the Pacific coast corridor from the narrow strip of wilderness north to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec—the southeastern border of the land of Desolation] and on the west in the land of Nephi, in the place of their fathers’ first inheritance, and thus bordering along by the seashore. (Alma 22:28; between 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

Perhaps this narrow coastal corridor between the Sierra Madre Mountains and the west sea lacks many substantial ruins of ancient cities because it was inhabited largely by the “more idle part of the Lamanites” (see verse above).

As seen in the verses cited in this section, the terms “west sea” and “sea west” appear to refer to the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Mexico, and the “east sea” and “sea east” refer to the Gulf of Honduras (and not the Gulf of Mexico) for the reason that it was adjacent to the possessions of the Lamanites in and near the land of Nephi (Alma 50:13). The sea north is probably the Gulf of Mexico, and the sea south is the Pacific Ocean off Guatemala.

3. Where Is the Narrow Strip of Wilderness?

Locating the narrow strip of wilderness would help place the land of Nephi (the name used by the Nephites to describe the homelands of the Lamanites after Mosiah1 left for Zarahemla in 200 BC) just to the south of it and the land of Zarahemla (including the Nephite capital, the city of Zarahemla, founded by the Mulekites) just to the north.

Although the phrase “narrow strip of wilderness” is used only once in the Book of Mormon (Alma 22:27), references to the “south wilderness” (south of the land of Zarahemla; Alma 16:6–7, Alma 22:31) are generally believed to describe the same area.

Behold, I am Amaleki, the son of Abinadom. Behold, I will speak unto you somewhat concerning Mosiah, [Mosiah1] who was made king over the land of Zarahemla; for behold, he being warned of the Lord that he should flee out of the land of Nephi, and as many as would hearken unto the voice of the Lord should also depart [to the north] out of the land with him, into the [south] wilderness—

And it came to pass that he did according as the Lord had commanded him. And they departed out of the land into the wilderness, as many as would hearken unto the voice of the Lord; and they were led by many preachings and prophesyings. And they were admonished continually by the word of God; and they were led by the power of his arm, through the wilderness until they came down [perhaps northward from the Guatemalan highlands, traveling along the Usumacinta River—the river Sidon; see section 7] into the land which is called the land of Zarahemla.

And they discovered a people, who were called the people of Zarahemla. Now, there was great rejoicing among the people of Zarahemla; and also Zarahemla did rejoice exceedingly, because the Lord had sent the people of Mosiah with the plates of brass which contained the record of the Jews.

Behold, it came to pass that Mosiah discovered that the people of Zarahemla came out from Jerusalem at the time that Zedekiah, king of Judah, was carried away captive into Babylon.

And they journeyed in the wilderness, and were brought by the hand of the Lord across the great waters [conceivably hiring a Phoenician ship], into the land where Mosiah discovered them; and they had dwelt there from that time forth.

And at the time that Mosiah discovered them, they had become exceedingly numerous. Nevertheless, they had had many wars and serious contentions, and had fallen by the sword from time to time; and their language had become corrupted; and they had brought no records with them; and they denied the being of their Creator; and Mosiah, nor the people of Mosiah, could understand them.

But it came to pass that Mosiah caused that they should be taught in his language. And it came to pass that after they were taught in the language of Mosiah, Zarahemla gave a genealogy of his fathers, according to his memory; and they are written, but not in these plates.

And it came to pass that the people of Zarahemla, and of Mosiah, did unite together; and Mosiah was appointed to be their king. (Omni 1:12–19; 361–120 BC; emphasis added)

The Motagua Fault

The narrow strip of wilderness may be the Motagua fault area of Guatemala (see figure 4). The Motagua River is a 302-mile-long river rising in the western highlands of Guatemala (where it is also called Río Grande) and running east from the continental divide near the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Honduras on the east coast. The final few miles of the river form part of the Guatemala/Honduras border. The Motagua River basin covers an area of 4,890 square miles, making it the largest river basin in Guatemala.

This river valley also marks the Motagua fault, one of the boundaries between the North American and the Caribbean tectonic plates—a highly mountainous area stretching west-east from nearly the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Honduras. This fault has been the source of several major earthquakes in Guatemala. The Motagua River runs in a valley that has the only known source of Guatemalan jadite and was an important commerce route during the pre–Columbian era. The important Maya site of Quirigua is near the river’s north bank.

Instantly visible on a topographical map (see figure 4 below), this feature is generally accepted as a primary candidate for the narrow strip of wilderness because no other New World wilderness area (that is, a largely uninhabited area) extends from a sea east to a sea west, as described in the following verse:

And it came to pass that the [Lamanite] king sent a proclamation throughout all the land [of Nephi], amongst all his people who were in all his land, who were in all the regions round about, which was bordering even to the sea, on the east [the Gulf of Honduras; see “The East Sea—the Gulf of Honduras,” under section 2, “Where Are the Seas Surrounding the Book of Mormon Lands?”] and on the west [perhaps near the Pacific coast of Guatemala; see “The West Sea—the Pacific off Mexico,” under section 2, “Where Are the Seas Surrounding the Book of Mormon Lands?”], and which was divided from the land of Zarahemla by a narrow strip of wilderness [possibly the Motagua fault], which ran from the sea east even to the sea west . . . and thus were the Lamanites and the Nephites divided. (Alma 22:27; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

The Motagua fault created the Cuchumatanes mountain range, the only range in the western hemisphere that stretches from a “sea east” (the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of Honduras) to a “sea west” (the Pacific Ocean), as described in Alma 22:27 above. This is the highest nonvolcanic mountain range in Central America, climbing to over 12,500 feet with a total area of 580 square miles above 9,800 feet—the largest highland area in Mesoamerica.

Thus, the narrow strip of wilderness was the northern border of the Land of Nephi, separating it from the land of Zarahemla to the north. It stretched across Mesoamerica from the east sea to the west.

Figure 3. Above, the narrow strip of wilderness

below, the meeting of the tectonic plates.

And the land of Nephi did run in a straight course from the east sea to the west [from the Gulf of Honduras extending perhaps to the west sea spot where Lehi landed]. (Alma 50:8; 72–67 BC; emphasis added)

Now the land south [of the narrow strip of wilderness] was called Lehi, and the land north was called Mulek [or, more often, the lands of Zarahemla and Bountiful], which was after the son of Zedekiah; for the Lord did bring Mulek into the land north [of the narrow strip of wilderness], and Lehi into the land south [of the narrow strip of wilderness]. (Helaman 6:10; 29–24 BC; emphasis added)

The Mulekites migrated from their “second landing” (see Alma 22:30) in the Gulf of Mexico to the land of Zarahemla, where they welcomed Mosiah₂ in approximately 200 BC. Presumably, the land south, called “Lehi” in this verse, was the same land referred to as the “land Nephi” elsewhere in the Book of Mormon by Nephite record keepers.

Given Lamanite antipathy toward him who allegedly usurped their forefather Laman’s birthright, the Lamanites may well have had a different name for their homeland—perhaps “land of Lehi.” In the days of Mosiah₁, and perhaps prior thereto, the Nephites called the land where the Lamanites lived “the land of Lehi-Nephi” (Mosiah 7:2). The first mention of a “land of Nephi” by Nephite record keepers occurs in Mosiah 7:4, written about 121 BC; the last is Helaman 4:12, written near 38 BC.

The only large, natural strip of mountainous wilderness running from a sea on the west to a sea on the east in the entire New World—running from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean—is the Cuchumatanes mountain range/Motagua River basin along the Motagua fault. This mountainous strip of wilderness is undoubtedly the Book of Mormon’s narrow strip of wilderness.

4. Where Were the “Narrow Pass” and the “Narrow Passage”?

Alma and Mormon suggest that travelers between the land northward and the land southward may have used one or more small transportation corridors, each called a “narrow passage” or “narrow pass.”

Narrow Pass near the West Sea—the Pacific Ocean

A pass near the west sea is suggested in the verses below.

And the Nephites and the armies of Moronihah were driven even into the land of Bountiful. . . . And there they did fortify against the Lamanites, from the west sea, even unto the east; it being a day’s journey for a Nephite, on the line which they had fortified and stationed their armies to defend their north country. (Helaman 4:6–7; 38–30 BC; emphasis added)

And the Lamanites did give unto us the land northward, yea, even to the narrow passage which led into the land southward and we did give unto the Lamanites all the land southward [of the narrow passage, including at least the lands of Nephi, Zarahemla, and Bountiful—presumably including the “capital parts of the land” with many “great cities,” and the lands on the east sea—the Gulf of Honduras as explained in section 2, “Where Are the Seas Surrounding the Book of Mormon Lands?”]. (Mormon 2:29; AD 327–350; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that I [Mormon] did cause my people that they should gather themselves together at the land Desolation, to a city which was in the borders [the city of Desolation; see verse 7], by the narrow pass which led into the land southward [from the land northward where Mormon was raised; see Mormon 1:6].

And there we did place our armies, that we might stop the armies of the Lamanites, that they might not get possession of any of our lands [in the land northward]; therefore we did fortify against them with all our force. [Evidently, a primary focus of the Nephite armies in AD 350 was preventing Lamanites from entering the land northward through the narrow pass.]

And it came to pass that in the three hundred and sixty and first year the Lamanites did come down to the city of Desolation to battle against us [perhaps down from the Sierra Madre mountains in the southeast section of the isthmus]; and it came to pass that in that year we did beat them, insomuch that they did return to their own lands again [presumably back “up” into the Sierra Madres or to the land of Nephi].

And in the three hundred and sixty and second year they did come down again to battle. And we did beat them again, and did slay a great number of them, and their dead were cast into the sea [presumably the west sea near the land of Desolation]. (Mormon 3:5–8; AD 350–362; emphasis added)

These verses suggest the existence of a narrow pass at the southern part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, near the west sea, because with one exception, no mountains are found in the northern part of the isthmus from which the Lamanites could come “down” to battle against the Nephites. This exception is the Tuxtla Mountains on the Gulf of Mexico, just northwest of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. This area is arguably within the land northward, which the Nephites presumably would have defended against Lamanite encroachment, and is over three hundred miles from the Lamanite homeland.

The Journey to the Land of Cumorah

The vast majority of Nephites traveling to the land northward from the land southward may have taken a path through the southern section of the isthmus near Mormon’s “narrow pass” near the west sea, or traveled by boat up the west sea (Alma 63:5). This journey north would be required of virtually all Nephites in the land southward by AD 384:

And I, Mormon, wrote an epistle unto the king of the Lamanites, and desired of him that he would grant unto us that we might gather together our people unto the land of Cumorah, by a hill which was called Cumorah, and there we could give them battle.

And it came to pass that the king of the Lamanites did grant unto me the thing which I desired.

And it came to pass that we did march forth to the land of Cumorah, and we did pitch our tents round about the hill Cumorah; and it was in a land of many waters, rivers, and fountains; and here we had hope to gain advantage over the Lamanites.

And when three hundred and eighty and four years had passed away, we had gathered in all the remainder of our people unto the land of Cumorah. (Mormon 6:2–5; AD 384–385; emphasis added)

And then the exodus began, as Nephites from the many cities on the east sea, in the land of Zarahemla, in the “the more capital parts of the land” north of Zarahemla (Helaman 1:27), and in “those great cities which are round about” (Helaman 7:22) presumably used the narrow passage near the west sea (Alma 63:5) to travel to Cumorah.

Relatively few Nephites made this journey after AD 350, thirty-five years before the final battle at Cumorah, because most of them had already traveled to the land northward. Ammaron had deposited all of the Nephite records (and presumably the Urim and Thummim, the brass plates and sword of Laban, the Liahona, and Ether’s twenty-four plates) in the hill Shim in the land northward by the time Mormon was ten years old (approximately AD 320 AD; see Mormon 1:3). Thus, a logical conclusion is that most Nephites had immigrated north by that date.

The Nephites may have used routes and passes to the land northward other than the narrow pass, but Mormon appears to have focused on protecting lands and, presumably, routes of travel to Cumorah near the west seashore (see Mormon 2:6 below). The word “east” does not appear in Mormon’s chapters.

Sorenson suggests that a dry-season route to the land northward was available through the swamplands of Tabasco on the Gulf of Mexico and Veracruz at the north of the isthmus. Such a route could have been used by Jaredites moving from the Olmec cities of La Venta, San Lorenzo, and Tres Zapotes to the hill Ramah for their final battle or by Lamanites living near the Gulf of Honduras to travel to the hill Cumorah for the final battle in AD 385. But the primary route appears to have been near the west seashore, the area where Mormon concentrated his defenses of the land northward, as described in the following verses.

And it came to pass that in the three hundred and twenty and seventh year the Lamanites did come upon us with exceedingly great power, insomuch that they did frighten my armies; therefore they would not fight, and they began to retreat towards the north countries.

And it came to pass that we did come to the city of Angola, and we did take possession of the city, and make preparations to defend ourselves against the Lamanites. And it came to pass that we did fortify the city with our might; but notwithstanding all our fortifications the Lamanites did come upon us and did drive us out of the city.

And they did also drive us forth out of the land of David.

And we marched forth and came to the land of Joshua, which was in the borders west by the seashore.

And it came to pass that we did gather in our people as fast as it were possible, that we might get them together in one body. (Mormon 2:3–7; AD 327–350; emphasis added)

Why is Mormon marching his army near the west sea in his efforts to protect routes into the land northward? Perhaps because it is a more reliable route than the swamps in the northern half of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec—the narrow neck of land.

The narrow passage referenced by Mormon is probably located at the southwestern corner of the isthmus next to the west sea (the Pacific Ocean). Perhaps this route is the cut in the Sierra Madre Mountains made by the Rio de Tehuantepec, with the ruins of Guingola guarding the entrance to the pass. This passage offers a river-bed route north from the west sea to Mitla, near the large ancient city of Monte Alban—presumably an attractive destination in the land northward during Nephite times.

Narrow Pass Near the Sea East—the Gulf of Honduras

One narrow passage appears to have been located near the east sea—the Gulf of Honduras (see section 2, “Where Are the Seas Surrounding the Book of Mormon Lands?” under the heading “The East Sea—the Gulf of Honduras).”

Now behold, the people who were in the land Bountiful, or rather Moroni, feared that they would hearken to the words of Morianton [a dissident Nephite] and unite with his people, and thus he [Morianton] would obtain possession of those parts of the land [Bountiful], which would lay a foundation for serious consequences among the people of Nephi, yea, which consequences would lead to the overthrow of their liberty.

Therefore Moroni sent an army, with their camp, to head the people of Morianton, to stop their flight into the land northward.

And it came to pass that they [the army sent by Captain Moroni] did not head them until they had come to the borders of the land Desolation [presumably an area where people, probably Jaredites, had been killed—see section 7, “Where Is the Land of Desolation?”]; and there they did head them, by the narrow pass which led by the sea into the land northward, yea, by the sea, on the west and on the east. (Alma 50:32–34; 72–67 BC; emphasis added)

These final ten words are perplexing. David G. Hennessey suggests that the words “by the sea, on the west and on the east” should be understood to mean that the blocking forces of Moroni’s army ambushed Morianton’s northbound group “by the narrow pass which led by the sea” by means of simultaneous attacks from the left and right (“on the west and on the east”).¹¹ Noting that Joseph Smith did not punctuate his translation of the Book of Mormon, Hennessey argues that the subject of the foregoing verse is the army heading Morianton—not the pass or the sea.

Travel corridors may have existed along the Gulf of Honduras where coastal peninsulas near today’s Chetumal area run north into the Yucatan Peninsula—arguably another “land northward.” Perhaps this is the land northward to which the Nephite dissident Morianton wished to lead his people (see Alma 50–51). A number of Maya ruins in the Yucatan date to Book of Mormon times, including Becan and Dzibilchaltun.

And thus he [Amalakiah, a dissident Nephite who became king of the Lamanites] went on, taking possession of many cities, the city of Nephihah, and the city of Lehi, and the city of Morianton, and the city of Omner, and the city of Gid, and the city of Mulek, all of which were on the east borders by the seashore [the Gulf of Honduras]. (Alma 51:26; 67 BC; emphasis added)

If Morianton’s people were on their way from the Gulf of Honduras to Mexico through the north isthmus, they had more than a four-hundred-mile journey ahead of them, as shown in figure 1. A trip to the Yucatan Peninsula (a possible “land northward”) seems more likely.

Narrow Pass Near the Sea North—the Gulf of Mexico

Sorenson suggests that the “narrow pass” referred to in Alma’s record may be located in the northern portion of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec—an elevated strip of land about thirty miles long running west from Minatitlan (just west of the Coatzolcoalcos River) east to Acayucan.¹² This gravel ridge is high enough (150 feet or so above sea level) to keep travelers out of the marsh on either side during the wet season.

Figure 4. Flooding in Tabasco, Mexico

Ainsworth, on the other hand, suggests that the north half of the isthmus was largely impassable marsh, especially during the rainy season (May-October).¹³ Perhaps confirmatory of this suggestion are the facts that few towns are found in the northern isthmus today and that only three significant ancient ruin sites are found there—Tres Zapotes, San Lorenzo, and La Venta–and these were built on high spots rising a little above the surrounding lowlands.

All three of these sites date to Olmec (Jaredite) times (1800 BC—AD 200), largely before the Nephite era (200 BC, when Mosiah moved north from the Guatemalan highlands, to AD 385 when the Nephite nation was destroyed at the hill Cumorah.) There is no reference in the Book of Mormon to Nephites living among Jaredite ruins.

Perhaps Nephites were less comfortable in the Tabasco and Veracruz wetlands than the Olmecs. Each of these states receives over a hundred inches of rainfall per year and is crisscrossed by hundreds of rivers and streams. If Ainsworth is correct, few Nephite travelers came to the northern half of the isthmus.

A glance at a map will confirm that even with today’s advances in dam building and other water-control measures, this area of Mexico has relatively few inhabitants (except towns built near the coast to service the offshore petroleum industry during the past fifty years).

Because Mormon led the strategic withdrawal of his armies to the hill Cumorah in lands bordering the west sea (Mormon 2:6), this may have been the principal corridor located near the narrow neck of land. Other passages may possibly have been available to the land northward, and perhaps more than one land northward was involved (such as the Yucatan Peninsula and the “north countries” of Mormon 2:3 and Ether 9:35).

5. Where Were the River Sidon and the City of Zarahemla?

The city of Zarahemla was on the west bank of the river Sidon, which originated in the mountains of the narrow strip of wilderness and flowed northward (see Alma 6:7 and figure 1). This city was not located near a sea but was built in the “center of the land” (Helaman 1:27). Many “great cities” and the “capital parts of the land” lay north of Zarahemla (presumably in the land of Bountiful—Bountiful crops are needed to feed a large population; Helaman 7:22). To the south of the city of Zarahemla lay the narrow strip of wilderness and the land of Nephi:

And it came to pass that the king [of the Lamanites] sent a proclamation throughout all the land, amongst all his people who were in all his land, who were in all the regions round about, which was bordering even to the sea, on the east and on the west, and which was divided from the land of Zarahemla by a narrow strip of wilderness, which ran from the sea east even to the sea west, and round about on the borders of the seashore, and the borders of the wilderness which was on the north by the land of Zarahemla, through the borders of Manti, by the head of the river Sidon [in the narrow strip of wilderness], running from the east towards the west [it is not the river Sidon that runs “from the east towards the west” but the Lamanite border near the river headwaters]—and thus were the Lamanites and the Nephites divided. (Alma 22:27; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

And thus he [Captain Moroni] cut off all the strongholds of the Lamanites in the east wilderness [near the Gulf of Honduras close to the land of Nephi], yea, and also on the west, fortifying the line between the Nephites and the Lamanites, between the land of Zarahemla and the land of Nephi, from the west sea, running by the head of the river Sidon—the Nephites possessing all the land northward [of the narrow strip of wilderness], yea, even all the land which was northward of the land Bountiful [the land of Desolation and the north countries], according to their pleasure. (Alma 50:11; 72–57 BC; emphasis added)

Several Book of Mormon locations are said in the text to be on the “east” or “west” side of the river Sidon, confirming the river’s general north-south orientation. In the foregoing verse, the Nephites possessed land north of the headwaters of the river Sidon, and Zarahemla was located on the river Sidon. Thus, the river Sidon flows north.

And it came to pass that because of so much contention and so much difficulty in the government, that they had not kept sufficient guards in the land of Zarahemla; for they had supposed that the Lamanites durst not come into the heart of their lands to attack that great city Zarahemla. . . .

And, supposing that their greatest strength was in the center of the land, therefore he [the Lamanite general Coriantumr] did march forth, giving them no time to assemble themselves together save it were in small bodies; and in this manner they did fall upon them and cut them down to the earth.

But behold, this march of Coriantumr through the center of the land gave [Nephite general] Moronihah great advantage over them, notwithstanding the greatness of the number of the Nephites who were slain.

For behold, Moronihah had supposed that the Lamanites durst not come into the center of the land, but that they would attack the cities round about in the borders as they had hitherto done; therefore Moronihah had caused that their strong armies should maintain those parts round about by the borders.

But behold, the Lamanites were not frightened according to his [Moronihah’s] desire, but they had come into the center of the land, and had taken the capital city which was the city of Zarahemla, and were marching through the most capital parts of the land [they were headed north to the land of Bountiful, where the “capital parts of the land” were located—those with the greatest agriculture, population and wealth, perhaps including Palenque, Becan, El Mirador, and Tikal], slaying the people with a great slaughter, both men, women, and children, taking possession of many cities and of many strongholds. (Helaman 1:18, 24–27; 52–51 BC; emphasis added)

A possible issue with Sorenson’s placement of Zarahemla in the central depression of Chiapas on the Grijalva River is that there are few large ruins (“capital parts of the land” and “great cities”) to the north of this depression. Zarahemla is more likely the ancient ruins of Yaxchilan, a city built on a light-bulb-shaped highlands protected by the encircling Usumacinta River—the river Sidon. This would put it south of Tikal, El Mirador, and Palenque, the great ruins of Mesoamerica.

Figure 5. In the Google Earth image on the left, the ruins of Yaxchilan lie on a highland beneath the forest canopy, nearly encircled by the Usumacinta River, which here divides Mexico and Guatemala. On the right is shown the west acropolis of Yaxchilan.

The Usumacinta River was in high flood stage during every six-month rainy season, and during this time, Yaxchilan became an island. An all-weather passage across the treacherous river was a necessity to access the farmlands around the city. Scholars have speculated that the Maya solved this transportation problem by constructing a 100-meter-long suspension bridge across the river, featuring three spans (requiring two piers in the river) extending from a platform on the grand plaza.

Figure 6. On the left is a computer simulation by archaeoengineer James A. O’Kon in the National Geographic Magazine. On the right is a pile of stones in the Usumacinta thought by him to be one of

the supporting piers of the bridge.

The only two viable candidates for the river Sidon appear to be the Grijalva and the Usumacinta rivers, for they are the only two large rivers in Mesoamerica flowing from south to north. Because the city of Zarahemla was located on the west bank of the river Sidon, was in “the heart of the land,” and was south of the “capital parts of the land” and “many great cities,” the Usumacinta was the river Sidon; and Yaxchilan (or some city nearby) was the city of Zarahemla. But since these rivers are relatively close to each other, the locations of the other geographical features discussed in this article would not be affected regardless of which river is accepted as the river Sidon.

Ainsworth states that virtually all non–Latter-day Saint Maya scholars agree that the Maya migrated down the Usumacinta from Guatemala, just as Mosiah1 did, and that there is no evidence that large groups migrated down the Grijalva. It must be remembered, however, that the Mulekites migrated up the river Sidon to Zarahemla.

6. Where Was the Land of Bountiful?

The Book of Mormon speaks of one or more places called the “land Bountiful” or “land of Bountiful” in the western hemisphere.

• One land Bountiful lies near the “sea west” (the Pacific Ocean), near the narrow neck of land (Alma 63:5).

• Another is located on the sea east (the Gulf of Honduras of the Atlantic Ocean) north of Jershon (Alma 27:22).

So either two or more lands Bountiful are found in Book of Mormon New World geography or one land of Bountiful stretches from the south end of the isthmus to the Gulf of Honduras, a distance of roughly four hundred miles.

Conceivably, the land Bountiful by the east sea, the Gulf of Honduras, was named by the Nephites, just as they had so named the Old World land where Nephi built his ship (1 Nephi 17:5). The Bountiful north of the land of Zarahemla, stretching west to the sea on the southern end of the isthmus, may have been named by the Mulekites who founded Zarahemla. Both groups were Israelites, to whom the word “bountiful” may have meant “fruitful.”

Bountiful by the West Sea

And also there were many Lamanites on the east by the seashore [at the Gulf of Honduras], whither the Nephites had driven them. And thus the Nephites were nearly surrounded by the Lamanites [perhaps on the west in the Sierra Madre Mountains, the south in the land of Nephi, and the east in the Lamanite possessions along the Gulf of Honduras]; nevertheless the Nephites had taken possession of all the northern parts of the land [north of the land of Nephi] bordering on the wilderness [the narrow strip of wilderness], at the head of the river Sidon, from the east to the west [along the narrow strip of wilderness], round about on the wilderness side, on the north, even until they came to the land which they called Bountiful.

And it [the land Bountiful] bordered upon the land which they called Desolation [north of the Chiapas/Oaxaca border on the west sea], it being so far northward that it came into the land which had been peopled and been destroyed, [see section 7, “Where Was the Land of Desolation?”; Olmec/Jaredite ruins would have been present at Tres Zapotes, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, and La Venta—in the states of Veracruz and Tabasco north of the territory of Zarahemla and Bountiful] of whose bones we have spoken, which was discovered by the people of Zarahemla, it being the place of their first landing [thus, the Mulekites landed to the north in the Gulf of Mexico before traveling south to Zarahemla].

And they [the Mulekites] came from there [the place of first landing] up into the south wilderness [going “up” the river Sidon means going upstream, south from the Gulf of Mexico where the Usumacinta or Grijalva reaches the sea, perhaps all the way south to the headwaters of the river Sidon in the narrow strip of wilderness]. Thus the land on the northward [of the narrow neck of land] was called Desolation, and the land on the southward [of the narrow neck] was called Bountiful, it being the wilderness which is filled with all manner of wild animals of every kind, a part of which had come from the land northward for food.

And now, it was only the distance of a day and a half’s journey for a Nephite, on the line Bountiful and the land Desolation, from the east [not the east sea] to the west sea [this “line” is presumably the border between Bountiful and Desolation at the south end of the isthmus]; and thus the land of Nephi and the land of Zarahemla were nearly surrounded by water, there being a small neck of land between the land northward and the land southward.

And it came to pass that the Nephites had inhabited the land Bountiful, even from the east [perhaps as far as the east sea] unto the west sea, and thus the Nephites in their wisdom, with their guards and their armies, had hemmed in the Lamanites on the south [south of the narrow strip of wilderness], that thereby they should have no more possession on the north [of the narrow strip of wilderness] that they might not overrun the land northward. (Alma 22:29–33; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that Hagoth, he being an exceedingly curious man, therefore he went forth and built him an exceedingly large ship, on the borders of the land Bountiful, by the land Desolation, and launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward. (Alma 63:5; 56–53 BC; emphasis added)

And in the fifty and seventh year they [the Lamanites] did come down [from the land of Nephi in the Guatemalan highlands] against the Nephites to battle, and they did commence the work of death; yea, insomuch that in the fifty and eighth year of the reign of the judges they succeeded in obtaining possession of the land of Zarahemla; yea, and also all the lands, even unto the land which was near the land Bountiful [west].

And the Nephites and the armies of Moronihah were driven even into the land of Bountiful;

And there they did fortify against the Lamanites, from the west sea, even unto the east; it being a day’s journey for a Nephite, on the line which they had fortified and stationed their armies to defend their north country. (Helaman 4:5–7; 38–30 BC; emphasis added)

And the land which was appointed was the land of Zarahemla, and the land which was between the land Zarahemla and the land Bountiful [perhaps Hermounts of Alma 2:37], yea, to the line which was between the land Bountiful and the land Desolation [perhaps the line spoken of in Alma 22:32, which could be traversed by a Nephite in a day and a half and which was located on the Chiapas-Oaxaca border by the west sea]. (3 Nephi 3:23; AD 16–17; emphasis added)

And now it came to pass that there were a great multitude gathered together, of the people of Nephi, round about the temple which was in the land Bountiful; and they were marveling and wondering one with another, and were showing one to another the great and marvelous change which had taken place. (3 Nephi 11:1; AD 34; emphasis added.)

Bountiful by the East Sea

The foregoing verses demonstrate that a land Bountiful was located near the west sea (Pacific Ocean); those following speak of a land Bountiful near the east sea (the Gulf of Honduras).

And it came to pass that the voice of the [Nephite] people came, saying: Behold, we will give up the land of Jershon, which is on the east by the sea [on the Gulf of Honduras], which joins the land Bountiful, which is on the south of the land Bountiful; and this land Jershon is the land which we will give unto our brethren [the people of Ammon, formerly called the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi] for an inheritance. (Alma 27:22; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

Now the Zoramites had gathered themselves together in a land which they called Antionum, which was east of the land of Zarahemla, which lay nearly bordering upon the seashore, which was south of the land of Jershon, which also bordered upon the wilderness south [narrow strip of wilderness], which wilderness was full of the Lamanites. (Alma 31:3; 74 BC; emphasis added)

Thus Moroni, with his armies, which did increase daily because of the assurance of protection which his works did bring forth unto them, did seek to cut off the strength and the power of the Lamanites from off the lands of their [the Nephites’] possessions, that they should have no power upon the lands of their possession.

And it came to pass that the Nephites began the foundation of a city, and they called the name of the city Moroni; and it was by the east sea; and it was on the south by the line of the possessions of the Lamanites [near the Gulf of Honduras]. . . .

Now behold, the people who were in the land Bountiful, or rather Moroni, feared that they [the people of Morianton] would hearken to the words of Morianton and unite with his people, and thus he would obtain possession of those parts of the land, which would lay a foundation for serious consequences among the people of Nephi, yea, which consequences would lead to the overthrow of their liberty. (Alma 50:12–13, 32; 72–67 BC; emphasis added)

And thus he [Amalakiah] went on, taking possession of many cities, the city of Nephihah, and the city of Lehi, and the city of Morianton, and the city of Omner, and the city of Gid, and the city of Mulek, all of which were on the east borders by the seashore [the Gulf of Honduras].

And thus had the Lamanites obtained, by the cunning of Amalickiah, so many cities, by their numberless hosts, all of which were strongly fortified after the manner of the fortifications of Moroni; all of which afforded strongholds for the Lamanites.

And it came to pass that they marched to the borders of the land Bountiful, driving the Nephites before them and slaying many.

But it came to pass that they were met by Teancum, who had slain Morianton and had headed his people in his flight.

And it came to pass that he headed Amalickiah also, as he was marching forth with his numerous army that he might take possession of the land Bountiful, and also the land northward. [Teancum apparently headed Amalikiah as he was going north to Bountiful along the Gulf of Honduras.]

But behold he met with a disappointment by being repulsed by Teancum and his men, for they were great warriors; for every man of Teancum did exceed the Lamanites in their strength and in their skill of war, insomuch that they did gain advantage over the Lamanites.

And it came to pass that they did harass them, insomuch that they did slay them even until it was dark. And it came to pass that Teancum and his men did pitch their tents in the borders of the land Bountiful; and Amalickiah did pitch his tents in the borders on the beach by the seashore, and after this manner were they driven. (Alma 51:26–32; 67 BC; emphasis added)

Figure 7. On the left is the National Geographic computer re–creation of Palenque; on the right is the Temple of Inscriptions, where Ainsworth suggests Christ may have appeared to the Nephites.

And now, when the Lamanites saw this [Amalickiah killed by Teancum’s javelin on New Year’s day] they were affrighted; and they abandoned their design in marching into the land northward, and retreated with all their army into the city of Mulek [located on the Gulf of Honduras; see Alma 51:26 above], and sought protection in their fortifications. . . .

And it came to pass that he kept thus preparing for war until Moroni had sent a large number of men to strengthen his army. . . .

And he also sent orders unto him that he should fortify the land Bountiful, and secure the narrow pass [perhaps a corridor north into the Yucatan Peninsula] which led into the land northward, lest the Lamanites should obtain that point and should have power to harass them on every side.

And Moroni also sent unto him, desiring him that he would be faithful in maintaining that quarter of the land [the land near the east sea], and that he would seek every opportunity to scourge the Lamanites in that quarter, as much as was in his power, that perhaps he might take again by stratagem or some other way those cities which had been taken out of their hands; and that he also would fortify and strengthen the cities round about, which had not fallen into the hands of the Lamanites.

And he also said unto him, I [Moroni] would come unto you [Teancum, who was fighting near the Gulf of Honduras], but behold, the Lamanites are upon us in the borders of the land by the west sea; and behold, I go against them, therefore I cannot come unto you. [Apparently, Teancum was by the east sea, whereas Moroni was by the west sea, perhaps near Izapa.]

Now, the king [Ammoron] had departed out of the land of Zarahemla, and had made known unto the queen concerning the death of his brother, and had gathered together a large number of men, and had marched forth against the Nephites on the borders by the west sea.

And thus he was endeavoring to harass the Nephites, and to draw away a part of their forces to that part of the land, while he had commanded those whom he had left to possess the cities which he had taken, that they should also harass the Nephites on the borders by the east sea [the Gulf of Honduras], and should takepossession of their lands as much as it was in their power, according to the power of their armies.

And thus were the Nephites in those dangerous circumstances in the ending of the twenty and sixth year of the reign of the judges over the people of Nephi.

But behold, it came to pass in the twenty and seventh year of the reign of the judges, that Teancum, by the command of Moroni—who had established armies to protect the south and the west borders of the land [perhaps near Izapa], and had begun his march towards the land Bountiful, that he might assist Teancum with his men in retaking the cities which they had lost. . . . [A march from Izapa to the Gulf of Honduras would perhaps have taken Moroni east along the line of fortified cities just north of the narrow strip of wilderness—seashore cities of Antiparah, Cumeni, Zeezrom, Manti, Nephihah, and ?Moroni.]

And it came to pass that Teancum made preparations to make an attack upon the city of Mulek [on the Gulf of Honduras], and march forth with his army against the Lamanites; but he saw that it was impossible that he could overpower them while they were in their fortifications; therefore he abandoned his designs and returned again to the city Bountiful [north of Mulek], to wait for the coming of Moroni, that he might receive strength to his army. (Alma 52:2, 7, 9–15, 17; 66–64 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that after the Lamanites had finished burying their dead and also the dead of the Nephites, they were marched back into the land Bountiful; and Teancum, by the orders of Moroni, caused that they should commence laboring in digging a ditch round about the land, or the city, Bountiful. . . .

And it came to pass that Moroni had thus gained a victory over one of the greatest of the armies of the Lamanites, and had obtained possession of the city of Mulek, which was one of the strongholds of the Lamanites in the land of Nephi; and thus he had also built a stronghold to retain his prisoners. (Alma 53:3, 6; 64 BC; emphasis added)

The Teancum vs. Amalikiah Military Campaigns

These battles were fought in the “land Bountiful-east” (on the Gulf of Honduras) because they were near Mulek on the east sea.

And thus he [Nephite dissident who had become the Lamanite king] went on, taking possession of many cities, the city of Nephihah, and the city of Lehi, and the city of Morianton, and the city of Omner, and the city of Gid, and the city of Mulek, all of which were on the east borders by the seashore [the Gulf of Honduras]. (Alma 51:26; 67 BC; emphasis added)

And now, when the Lamanites saw this they were affrighted; and they abandoned their design in marching into the land northward, and retreated with all their army into the city of Mulek, and sought protection in their fortifications. (Alma 52:2; 66–64 BC; emphasis added)

And they [Nephi and Lehi, the sons of Helaman] did remember his words; and therefore they went forth, keeping the commandments of God, to teach the word of God among all the people of Nephi, beginning at the city Bountiful;

And from thenceforth to the city of Gid; and from the city of Gid to the city of Mulek;

And even from one city to another, until they had gone forth among all the people of Nephi who were in the land southward; and from thence into the land of Zarahemla, among the Lamanites. (Helaman 5:14–16; 30 BC; emphasis added)

Assuming Mulek was by the east sea, what route did the Lamanites living there propose to take into the land northward? Perhaps the Yucatan Peninsula, located directly north of the Gulf of Honduras, was considered a “land northward” by Nephites living near the east sea. As noted above, several cities in the Yucatan date to Book of Mormon times, including Becan and Dzibilchaltun.

But if the “land northward” refers to Oaxaca, Veracruz, and states north of them, travelers from east-sea cities during the dry season may have traveled through Tabasco’s marshes using Sorenson’s gravel ridge. This route would have been a long journey indeed—but a shorter route to the hill Cumorah for a final battle (see section 8, “Where Are the Land and Hill Cumorah?”) than using Mormon’s narrow passage near the west sea.

The Book of Mormon contains thirteen references to a “land Bountiful” in the western hemisphere, two references to a “land of bountiful,” four to “city Bountiful,” and one to “city of Bountiful.” The references to “city” place it near the east sea (Helaman 5:14–16). Christ appeared at the temple in the “land Bountiful” (3 Nephi 11:1).

The land Bountiful probably ran from sea to sea – from the Chiapas/Oaxaca border near the Pacific Ocean to Belize and included the large cities of Palenque, El Mirador, and Tikal, arguably the “capital parts of the land” (Helaman 1:27). Bountiful crops are needed to feed these large populations. If Christ’s appearance to the Nephites occurred at Palenque (roughly equidistant between the east and west seas) as Ainsworth suggests, the case for a single land of Bountiful is strengthened. It may be significant that Mormon did not explicitly refer to two or more lands of Bountiful (see figure 1).

7. Where Was the Land of Desolation?

As evidenced in the verses below, the land Desolation (five verses), or land of Desolation (one verse), was located in or near the land northward, north of the land of Bountiful, perhaps both in and to the north of the narrow neck of land, and apparently stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico (see figure 1). Lands called “Desolation” in the Book of Mormon are lands rendered desolate by destruction of the inhabitants:

And thus ended the eleventh year of the judges, the Lamanites having been driven out of the land, and the people of Ammonihah were destroyed; yea, every living soul of the Ammonihahites was destroyed, and also their great city, which they said God could not destroy, because of its greatness.

But behold, in one day it was left desolate; and the carcases were mangled by dogs and wild beasts of the wilderness.

Nevertheless, after many days their dead bodies were heaped up upon the face of the earth, and they were covered with a shallow covering. And now so great was the scent thereof that the people did not go in to possess the land of Ammonihah for many years. And it was called Desolation of Nehors; for they were of the profession of Nehor, who were slain; and their lands remained desolate. (Alma 16:9–11; 81–78 BC; emphasis added)

Yea, and even they did spread forth into all parts of the land, into whatever parts it had not been rendered desolate and without timber, because of the many inhabitants who had before inherited the land.

And now no part of the land was desolate, save it were for timber; but because of the greatness of the destruction of the people who had before inhabited the land it was called desolate. (Helaman 3:5–6; 49–39 BC; emphasis added)

Some analysts suggest that land denuded of timber is, by Book of Mormon definition, “desolate,” but this outcome is not supported by the text. When readers examine the verse above very carefully, they will see that the land was called desolate because of the destruction of people, not because of lack of timber.

Although the Book of Mormon does not contain the words “marshes,” “wetlands,” or “swamps,” Mexico has many such areas, all inhospitable to habitation. They often appear on maps as areas with few, if any, cities or towns. Ainsworth notes that the Maya word tlapalco, meaning “flooded or wetlands,” has been historically applied to the state of Tabasco and the southern portion of Veracruz—the land of the Olmecs (Jaredites). But being inhospitable to habitation does not make lands “desolate” as defined in the Book of Mormon.

The base of the Yucatan Peninsula (across Mexico Highway 186) is likewise marshy in the rainy season but would be considered “desolate” by Book of Mormon recorders only in the event that many residents had been killed. Several substantial ruins lie along this highway, and these cities and their people could have been destroyed at one time or another. This possibility, however, is not established in the Book of Mormon text.

Northern Boundary

Ainsworth believes that Tampico (a Nahuatl word meaning “point of our roots”) was the spot at which Mexico’s initial settlers (the Jaredites) landed, according to Friar Bernardino de Sahagun (AD 1499–1590) in his book History of the Things of New Spain. These settlers afterward traveled from Tampico to the valleys of Puebla and Tlaxcala (Sahagun’s “land of the smoking white caps”—snow-covered volcanoes) and later spread throughout Mexico and the western hemisphere.

One Jaredite royal family lived near the Nephite land of Desolation (Ether 7:6), and the last surviving Jaredite (at least as far as Book of Mormon readers know), Coriantumr, wandered into the Mulekite city of Zarahemla before the arrival of Mosiah and his Nephite followers in 200 BC.

It [a great engraved stone—a stela—in Zarahemla] also spake a few words concerning his [the Jaredite Coriantumr’s] fathers. And his first parents came out from the tower, at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people [presumably the tower of Babel]; and the severity of the Lord fell upon them according to his judgments, which are just; and their bones lay scattered in the land northward. (Omni 1:22; between 361 and 130 BC; emphasis added)

And the king [Limhi] said unto him [Ammon]: Being grieved for the afflictions of my people, I caused that forty and three of my people should take a journey into the wilderness, that thereby they might find the land of Zarahemla, that we might appeal unto our brethren to deliver us out of bondage [imposed by Lamanites in the land Shemlon].

And they were lost in the wilderness for the space of many days, yet they were diligent, and found not the land of Zarahemla but returned to this land, having traveled in a land among many waters, having discovered a land which was covered with bones of men, and of beasts, and was also covered with ruins of buildings of every kind, having discovered a land which had been peopled with a people who were as numerous as the hosts of Israel.

Figure 8. The ruins of Monte Alban in Oaxaca, Mexico, possibly in the land of Moron,

which Moroni said was near the land of Desolation (Ether 7:6).

And for a testimony that the things that they had said are true they have brought twenty-four plates which are filled with engravings, and they are of pure gold.

And behold, also, they have brought breastplates, which are large, and they are of brass and of copper, and are perfectly sound.

And again, they have brought swords, the hilts thereof have perished, and the blades thereof were cankered with rust; and there is no one in the land that is able to interpret the language or the engravings that are on the plates. Therefore I said unto thee: Canst thou translate? (Mosiah 8:7–11; 121 BC; emphasis added)

And also there were many Lamanites on the east by the seashore [at the Gulf of Honduras], whither the Nephites had driven them. And thus the Nephites were nearly surrounded by the Lamanites; nevertheless the Nephites had taken possession of all the northern parts of the land bordering on the wilderness, at the head of the river Sidon, from the east to the west, round about on the wilderness side; on the north, even until they came to the land which they called Bountiful.

And it bordered upon the land which they called Desolation, it being so far northward that it came into the land which had been peopled and been destroyed, of whose bones we have spoken [perhaps near the spot where Limhi’s forty-three strong men found the plates of Ether (Mosiah 8:7–9)], which was discovered by the people of Zarahemla [the Mulekites], it being the place of their [the Mulekites’] first landing [thus, the Mulekites first landed in the land of Desolation, presumably in the Gulf of Mexico]. (Alma 22:29–30; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

And the land which was appointed was the land of Zarahemla, and the land which was between the land Zarahemla and the land Bountiful, yea, to the line which was between the land Bountiful and the land Desolation. [The land between Zarahemla and Bountiful may have been the land Hermounts mentioned in Alma 2:37.] (3 Nephi 3:23; AD 16–17; emphasis added)

And now I, Moroni, proceed to give an account of those ancient inhabitants who were destroyed by the hand of the Lord upon the face of this north country. (Ether 1:1; sometime between 2250–400 BC; emphasis added)

Now the land of Moron, where the king dwelt, was near the land which is called Desolation by the Nephites. [The land of Desolation is near the land Moron, in which Ainsworth believes the ruins of Monte Alban near Oaxaca are located. If he is right, Mormon’s narrow passage may have led toward Moron and thus may have been near the west sea.] (Ether 7:6; sometime between 2250–400 BC; emphasis added)

And there was great calamity in all the land, for they had testified that a great curse should come upon the land, and also upon the people, and that there should be a great destruction among them, such an one as never had been upon the face of the earth, and their bones should become as heaps of earth upon the face of the land except they should repent of their wickedness. (Ether 11:6; sometime between 2250–400 BC; emphasis added)

The land Desolation and neighboring lands to the north had been “peopled and destroyed,” evidenced by extensive ruins and heaps of bones. Presumably, many, if not all, of the bones that were discovered by Limhi’s scouts may have been remains of Jaredites.

Eastern Boundary

And it came to pass that in the first year of Lib, Coriantumr came up [up onto higher terrain] unto the land of Moron, and gave battle unto Lib.

And it came to pass that he fought with Lib, in which Lib did smite upon his arm that he was wounded; nevertheless, the army of Coriantumr did press forward upon Lib, that he fled to the borders upon the seashore.

And it came to pass that Coriantumr pursued him; and Lib gave battle unto him upon the seashore. . . .

And it came to pass that Shiz did pursue Coriantumr eastward, even to the borders by the seashore, and there he gave battle unto Shiz for the space of three days. (Ether 14:11–13, 26; sometime between 2250–400 BC; emphasis added)

A Jaredite battle at the seashore, reached after a chase eastward, must have taken place at the Gulf of Mexico. The Jaredites/Olmecs, having crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed near Tampico in the land northward (see section 8, “Where Are the Land and Hill Cumorah?”), would be most familiar with the Gulf of Mexico. Indeed, the Olmec cities of Tres Zapotes, San Lorenzo, and La Venta are located near this sea.

Southeastern Boundary

The land Desolation was bounded on the southeast by the land Bountiful, which extended from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Honduras (see figure 1 and section 6, “Where Was the Land of Bountiful?”).

And they came from there up into the south wilderness. Thus the land on the northward was called Desolation, and the land on the southward was called Bountiful, it being the wilderness which is filled with all manner of wild animals of every kind, a part of which had come from the land northward for food.

And now, it was only the distance of a day and a half’s journey for a Nephite, on the line [dividing?] Bountiful and the land Desolation, from the east to the west sea; and thus the land of Nephi and the land of Zarahemla were nearly surrounded by water, there being a small neck of land between the land northward and the land southward.

And it came to pass that the Nephites had inhabited the land Bountiful, even from the east unto the west sea [the land Bountiful probably reached from the Gulf of Honduras to the Pacific Ocean; see figure 1 and section 6, “Where Was the Land Bountiful?”), and thus the Nephites in their wisdom, with their guards and their armies, had hemmed in the Lamanites on the south [of the narrow strip of wilderness], that thereby they should have no more possession on the north, that they might not overrun the land northward. [Apparently by fortifying a certain portion of the land Bountiful near the west sea, the Nephites largely prevented the Lamanites from invading the land north of the isthmus.] (Alma 22:31–33; 90–77 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that they [the armies of Teancum] did not head them [the people from the city of Morianton on the east sea] until they had come to the borders of the land Desolation; and there they did head them, by the narrow pass which led by the sea into the land northward, yea, by the sea, on the west and on the east [possible meanings of these final words are discussed in section 8, “Where Are the Land and Hill Cumorah?]. (Alma 50:34; 72–67 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that Hagoth, he being an exceedingly curious man, therefore he went forth and built him an exceedingly large ship, on the borders of the land Bountiful, by the land Desolation, and launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward. (Alma 63:5; 56–53 BC; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that I did cause my people that they should gather themselves together at the land Desolation, to a city which was in the borders, by the narrow pass which led into the land southward.

And there we did place our armies, that we might stop the armies of the Lamanites, that they might not get possession of any of our lands; therefore we did fortify against them with all our force. [Thus, by AD 350, the Nephites had lost the lands of Zarahemla and Bountiful to the Lamanites and were preparing to travel through a narrow pass to the land northward.]

And it came to pass that in the three hundred and sixty and first year the Lamanites did come down to the city of Desolation to battle against us; and it came to pass that in that year we did beat them, insomuch that they did return to their own lands again. [This statement suggests that the city of Desolation may have been in the south of the isthmus, offering a much shorter Lamanite return to the land of Nephi than a journey from the northern isthmus.]

And in the three hundred and sixty and second year they did come down again to battle. And we did beat them again, and did slay a great number of them, and their dead were cast into the [west] sea. (Mormon 3:5–8; AD 350–362; emphasis added)

The unnamed city referenced in Mormon 3:5 above was near mountains from which the Lamanites could “come down.” For the reasons set forth in section 4, “Where Were the ‘Narrow Pass’ and the ‘Narrow Passage’?” under the subheading “Narrow Pass Near the Sea North—the Gulf of Mexico,” these highlands may correspond with the Sierra Madre Mountains as they extend into the southeast corner of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. If so, the Lamanites could return to the land of Nephi by trekking southeast along the western coastal corridor. A journey to the Lamanite homelands from the Tuxtla Mountains would be over four hundred miles.

Mormon never refers to an east sea in his chapters of the Book of Mormon; the narrow passage he describes is probably near the west sea, to which he refers twice:

And now it came to pass that in the three hundred and sixty and third year the Nephites did go up with their armies to battle against the Lamanites, out of the land Desolation. [To fight the Lamanites, the Nephite armies had to “go up”—perhaps to the Sierra Madre Mountains near the Chiapas/Oaxaca border.] . . .

And the remainder did flee and join the inhabitants of the city Teancum. Now the city Teancum lay in the borders by the seashore; and it was also near the city Desolation. [The cities of Teancum and Desolation may have been near the west sea in the land of Desolation, in the southwest corner of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.] (Mormon 4:1, 3; AD 363–375; emphasis added)

Based on the Book of Mormon definition of “desolation” as a place where many people had been killed, the land of Desolation probably included areas surrounding Olmec (Jaredite) ruins in the north isthmus (Tres Zapotes, San Lorenzo Tenochitlan, La Venta, and perhaps Olmec ruins yet to be discovered) and, for reasons not given in the text, the land of Desolation near Hagoth’s shipyard on the west sea (see Alma 63:5 and figure 1).

8. Where Are the Land and Hill Cumorah?

The land Cumorah and hill Cumorah were the extermination sites of both Nephites and Jaredites.

Many members of the Church of Jesus Christ believe that the place of these final battles was a hill in Manchester, New York, though Joseph Smith himself does not appear to have said so. This common belief may be because of the following:

• Joseph Smith’s “Zelph” statement during the Zion’s Camp march (but only one of the six reports of the event contained the word “Cumorah,” and it does not say where Cumorah was).

• A reference to “Cumorah” in Doctrine and Covenants 128:20 (which is not helpful in determining Cumorah’s location).

• The “cave in the hill Cumorah” statements of Oliver Cowdery (but most who heard the story thought he was describing a spiritual rather than a temporal experience, much like Paul’s acquaintance being caught up to the third heaven, “whether in the body, I cannot tell; or whether out of the body, I cannot tell” [2 Corinthians 12:2]).

• A sentence in the Introduction to the Book of Mormon written by the late Apostle Bruce R. McConkie: “After Mormon completed his writings, he delivered the account to his son Moroni, who added a few words of his own and hid up the plates in the hill Cumorah.” However, this introduction has not been canonized.

The above evidences are “thin.” A more persuasive view is held by those Book of Mormon scholars who conclude that the Ramah/Cumorah battles did not take place in Manchester, New York. ¹⁵

The Book of Mormon says the following about the location of the land and hill Cumorah:

And I Mormon, wrote an epistle unto the king of the Lamanites, and desired of him that he would grant unto us that we might gather together our people unto the land of Cumorah, by a hill which was called Cumorah, and there we could give them battle.

And it came to pass that the king of the Lamanites did grant unto me the thing which I desired.

And it came to pass that we did march forth to the land of Cumorah and we did pitch our tents round about the hill Cumorah; and it was in a land of many waters, rivers, and fountains; and here we had hope to gain advantage over the Lamanites.

And when three hundred and eighty and four years had passed away, we had gathered in all the remainder of our people unto the land of Cumorah. . . .

And when they [the Lamanite army] had gone through and hewn down all my people save it were twenty and four of us, (among whom was my son Moroni) and we having survived the dead of our people, did behold on the morrow, when the Lamanites had returned unto their camps, from the top of the hill Cumorah, the ten thousand of my people who were hewn down, being led in the front by me. (Mormon 6:2–5, 11; AD 385; emphasis added)

And it came to pass that there were ten more who did fall by the sword, with their ten thousand each; yea, even all my people, save it were those twenty and four who were with me, and also a few who had escaped into the south countries, and a few who had deserted over unto the Lamanites, had fallen; and their flesh, and bones, and blood lay upon the face of the earth, being left by the hands of those who slew them to molder upon the land, and to crumble and to return to their mother earth. (Mormon 6:15; AD 385; emphasis added)

And now it came to pass that after the great and tremendous battle at Cumorah, behold, the Nephites who had escaped into the country southward were hunted by the Lamanites, until they were destroyed. (Mormon 8:2; AD 400–421; emphasis added)

And now I, Moroni, proceed to give an account of those ancient inhabitants who were destroyed by the hand of the Lord upon the face of this north country. (Ether 1:1; sometime between 2250 and 400 BC; emphasis added)

Based /on Mormon 6:4 (set forth above), Ainsworth insists that the land of Cumorah must have “fountains” (water bubbling up from the ground) and that people must be able to camp “round about” the hill Cumorah. He also notes that Cumorah must be far enough north that a southbound traveler from the land Cumorah has room to pass through at least two “south countries” (Mormon 6:15) before reaching the land southward.

Accordingly, Ainsworth rejects the popular (at least with several Book of Mormon scholars) idea that the hill Cumorah is today’s Cerro Vigia in the Tuxtla Mountains at the northwest corner of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. He believes it is, instead, Cerro Bernal, seventy miles northwest of Tampico in the state of Tamaulipas (see figures 1 and 9). This area could be logically described by Moroni as “this north country” (Ether 1:1), whereas Cerro Vigia is located in the isthmus (see figure 9 below). Cerro Bernal is a dominant feature in the area and appears on the state’s official seal and on vehicle license plates (see figure 10 below).

Figure 9. On the left is the hill Cerro Bernal in the state of Tamaulipas State;

on the right is Cerro Vigia in the state of Veracruz.

Proponents of Cerro Vigia (see figures 2 and 9) suggest that Cerro Bernal, 450 miles to the north of Cerro Vigia in the state of Tamaulipas, may be too far north to be considered as a place where virtually all Nephites gathered for the final battle with the Lamanites in AD 385. But Mormon’s treaty with the Lamanite king would have provided ample time for this journey; Mormon 5:5 and 6:2, read together, suggest a period of perhaps five years may have passed between the dates of the treaty and the battle.

Part of Mormon’s strategy may have been to draw the Lamanites to battle over a long distance through unfamiliar and difficult terrain to the north (see Mormon 6:2 above). As to the suggestion that King Limhi’s forty-three strong men would not have traveled so far to find the twenty-four gold plates of Ether at the hill Ramah, see the discussion of La Venta in section 1, “Where Are the Seas Surrounding the Book of Mormon Lands?”.

Figure 10. License plate and state seal of Tamaulipas, Mexico,

each featuring Cerro Bernal.

Neither Cerro Bernal nor Cerro Vigia have been excavated to the point that either can be established as the site of the final battles of the Nephites and Jaredites. However, the Book of Mormon’s description of the land and hill of Cumorah seem to be a better fit for Cerro Bernal. Cerro Vigia is one of a line of peaks in the Tuxtla Mountains connected to its neighbors by high saddles and does not appear to be a strategic lookout, once encircled by armies camping “round about,” as was the hill Cumorah.

Some object to a battle site as far north as Tampico, but a five-year gathering period would have been sufficient for Nephites to travel there, particularly because virtually all Nephites were already located in the land northward by 350 BC (Mormon 3:5–6):

And in the three hundred and fiftieth year we made a treaty with the Lamanites and the robbers of Gadianton, in which we did get the lands of our inheritance divided.

And the Lamanites did give unto us the land northward, yea, even to the narrow passage which led into the land southward. And we did give unto the Lamanites all the land southward. (Mormon 2:28–29; AD 350)

Final Thoughts Respecting Book of Mormon Geography

Is any worthwhile purpose served by attempting to identify the possible location of Book of Mormon events? Some Book of Mormon commentators have suggested that such efforts may be a waste of time:

Don’t be concerned over Book of Mormon geography. Some say the Hill Cumorah was in southern Mexico (and someone pushed it down still farther) and not in western New York. Well, if the Lord wanted us to know where it was or where Zarahemla was, He’d have given us latitude and longitude, don’t you think? And why bother our heads trying to discover with archaeological certainty the geographical locations of the cities of the Book of Mormon like Zarahemla?¹⁶

The writers of the sacred record gave little space and did not make much of an effort to describe, in so many words, the physical features of the regions [of the Book of Mormon], wherein took place, the events they recorded. . . . If the time comes, or that it is expedient for the saints to have this information, it will come to them through the regularly established source, the prophet, seer, and revelator, the Presiding High Priest of the Church and no one else.¹⁷

Certainly the limited time in Church classrooms might be better spent in discussions of gospel principles than in speculative geographical quests respecting the Book of Mormon. However, there is an important place for study of Book of Mormon lands, even if only to answer the charge of critics that no actual places meet the Book of Mormon’s textual descriptions.

Elder Jeffrey R. Holland attributed to Elder Neal A. Maxwell the following statement: “Let’s know more than anybody else knows [about the Book of Mormon]. Let’s not have anyone else tell our story. . . . What critic should ever be able to tell us anything we haven’t already examined in depth?”

Doubtless no anthropological discoveries in Mesoamerica can persuade anyone of the historicity of the Book of Mormon any more than the Bible can be proven true by advances in Middle Eastern studies. Yet there may be a role for close examination of the lands of the Book of Mormon.

In that respect, Elder Dallin H. Oaks quotes English theologian Austin Farrar: “Though argument does not create conviction, lack of it destroys belief. What seems to be proved may not be embraced; but what no one shows the ability to defend is quickly abandoned. Rational argument does not create belief, but it maintains a climate in which belief may flourish.”¹⁹

Although this article offers a novel suggestion or two that might contribute to the discussion of Book of Mormon geography, a reader’s primary focus should be upon the purpose of the book as Alma explained to his son Helaman in 73 BC:

It has been prophesied by our fathers that these things, . . . [which have] enlarged the memory of this people, should be kept and handed down from one generation to another, . . . preserved by the hand of the Lord until they should go forth unto every nation, kindred, tongue, and people, . . . [bringing them] to the knowledge of their God unto the salvation of their souls. (Adapted from Alma 37:4, 8.)

Notes

[1]. George Reynolds and Janne M. Sjodahl, Commentary on the Book of Mormon, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press, 1955), 1:214.

[2]. Alan C. Miner states that Mormon, the abridger of Alma’s record, is the author of the geography notes appearing in Alma 22:27–34. See his Step by Step through the Book of Mormon (Springville, UT: Cedar Fort, 1996).

[3]. Jerry L. Ainsworth, The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni (n.p.: Peacemakers Publishing, 2000), 69.

[4]. See Ainsworth, The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni.

[5]. John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book and Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996) and Mormon’s Codex: An Ancient American Book (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book and Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2013).

[6]. See Ainsworth, The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni, and Joseph Lovell Allen and Blake Joseph Allen, Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon, 2nd ed. rev. (American Fork, UT: Covenant Communications, 2011).

[7]. John E. Clark, “A Key for Evaluating Nephite Geographies,” FARMS Review 23, no. 1, 13–43.

[8]. See Ted Dee Stoddard, “From the East to the West Sea: An Analysis of John L. Sorenson’s Book of Mormon Directional Statements,” http://www.bmaf.org/articles/east_to_west_sea__stoddard.

[9]. Ainsworth, The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni, 97.

[10]. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon, 42–44, 345.

[11]. David G. Hennessey, “The Narrow Neck of Land and the Narrow Pass: Where They Really Are and What It Really Means,” http://www.bmaf.org/articles/narrow_neck_narrow_pass__hennessey.

[12]. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon, 43.

[13]. Ainsworth, The Lives and Travels of Mormon and Moroni, 66.

[14]. See Kirk Magleby, “River Sidon South to North,” http://bookofmormonresources.blogspot.com/2011/ 11/river-sidon-south-to-north.

[15]. See, for example, John E. Clark, “Archaeology and Cumorah Questions,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 13, nos. 1–2 (2004) and Allen and Allen, Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon.

[16]. Harold B. Lee, The Teachings of Harold B. Lee (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1996), 156.

[17]. Reynolds and Sjodahl, Commentary on the Book of Mormon, preface.

[18]. Miner, Step by Step through the Book of Mormon.

[19]. Dallin H. Oaks, “The Historicity of the Book of Mormon,” FARMS Annual Dinner, Provo, UT, October 29, 1993, citing Jocelyn Gibb and Owen Barfield, Light on C. S. Lewis (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1965), 26.

Smith, Revell, Jones and Quinn

Topic/Type:

The Mesoamerican Model

Mesoamerica Alternatives

Cultural Considerations

Book of Mormon Names and Places

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Eight Major Features of Book of Mormon Geography

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Eight Major Features of Book of Mormon Geography

1. Where Is the “Narrow (or Small) Neck of Land”?

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